![]() Further investigations include bladder and kidney palpation, ultrasound scan and cystoscopic examinations, looking for sabulous (bladder) or discrete calculus formation. Large amounts of sabulous material are not necessarily an indication of abnormality. Urolithiasis cases usually have a degree of proteinuria and haematuria and may exhibit dysuria. Horse urine is fundamentally a supersaturated solution of calcium carbonate and will normally contain variable amounts of predominantly calcium carbonate crystals. Bacteria which if seen following Gram stain in association with leucocytes may also indicate infection. Leucocytes indicate inflammation/infection. Microscopic examinations should be used to detect casts (protein and cellular masses), which suggest renal tubular pathology. The density of normal urine ranges from 0.001 to 0.035. This is the ratio of the weight of a volume of a substance compared with the weight of the same volume of distilled water. Bilirubinuria may occur with choleliths or other causes of bile duct obstruction. Density: Density is also known as specific gravity. This test is used to screen how the kidney filters. Haemoglobinuria may occur with haemolytic conditions. Urine Specific gravity test compare the urine density to water density. Haematuria and sometimes haemoglobinuria may occur following traumatic injury, or with renal or cystic calculus formation. Glucosuria may be seen in classical Cushingoid horses and ponies. Proteinuria may occur with inflammation or renal tubular pathology. Urine pH reflects diet and horses grazing pasture will normally have alkaline urine whereas those on a cereal- based performance-type diet will normally have slightly acidic urine. Dipsticks are commonly used to measure pH (normally 7.5-8.5 in adult horses, 5.5-8.0 in foals) and to detect other abnormalities. Urine should be collected into sterile glass red-top containers for all our tests. Specific gravity (1.008-1.040 in adult horses, 1.001-1.025 in foals) should be measured with a refractometer. For example, a high BUN and creatinine (azotemia) in a dehydrated patient with a concentrated urine (urine specific gravity > 1.030 in a dog) is compatible with a pre-renal azotemia, whereas azotemia in a dehydrated dog with a USG of 1.010 indicates a renal azotemia. Horse urine is highly variable in colour from near colourless to golden or brownish and in its density, turbidity and mucinous content. Urine samples should be examined grossly for colour and consistency, the presence of blood (either fresh or changed), pus or excessive crystalline material. If the patient is dehydrated and renal function is normal, the urine SG should be greater than 1.030 (dog) or 1.035 (cat). Beware of owners collecting samples into other containers before pouring the urine into the provided universal container, resulting in spurious results. Mid-stream samples should be collected without the use of diuretics (which alter urine composition) into a sterile universal container. ![]() Urine analysis is useful to help detect renal or bladder pathology and to investigate cases of septic nephritis, cystitis or urethritis.
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